INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS
The achievements of Muslims in the industrial field had not been less spectacular than
those in the political and intellectual spheres. The Muslims during the Caliphate of
Abbasids and Omayyads in Spain had developed their industries to such a high degree of
perfection that their finished products were viewed with wonder at the imperial-courts of
Europe. The watch presented by Harun-ar-Rashid to Charlemagne, emperor of France was
regarded as an object of wonder. Their manufactured goods had captured the markets of the
known world, and their fabrics formed the favourite dresses of the ladies of the imperial
houses of Europe. But, the west has always taken pains to minimise the achievements of
Muslims, and John William Draper has rather gone out of the way in his outspoken book The
Intellectual Development of Europe when he says, "I have to deplore the systematic
manner in which the literature of Europe has contrived to put out of sight our scientific
obligations to the Mohammedans. Surely, they cannot be much longer hidden - The Arab has
left his intellectual impress over Europe, as, before long, Christendom will have to
confess; he has indelibly written it on the heavens, as anyone may see who reads the names
of the stars on a common celestial globe"
The genius of the Arabs, who formed the vanguard of human civilization during mediaeval
times, manufactured novel things and organised large-scale production of commodities which
were liberally supplied to different parts of the world. Their enterprising merchants
carried their finished products to the outermost parts of the world. The merchant navy of
Muslim Spain alone comprised 1,000 ships.
Abbasids
The. Abbasid Caliphate provided the most congenial atmosphere for the intellectual,
cultural and industrial developments of the Muslims. It was in this period that the Arabs
were given the fullest opportunity to display their talents in-different walks of life.
Harun and Mamun were the greatest patrons of arts and sciences during mediaeval times.
Mutasim is particularly known for the interest he exhibited in the industrial enterprises
of his empire. He had many industrial- projects executed during his lifetime and a large
number of factories were established in Iraq. Manufactures of every kind were encouraged
and fostered. The glass and soap made in the factories of Basrah were famous throughout
the world. During the reign of Mutasim Billah, a large number of factories sprang up round
about Baghdad and in other important cities of Iraq. The paper industry particularly
received much impetus, and in important paper factories, skilled workmen from Egypt were
employed. Persia was noted for her gold and embroidery work, which was carried on in all
the big cities. High class fabrics including satin brocade, silk and carpets were
manufactured in Islamic domains and were in great demand all over the world. Kufa was
famous for its silk and silk handkerchiefs known as kuffiyeh. Khuzistan (ancient Susiana)
produced superfine cloth. "The beautiful brocade of Tester", says an eminent
orientalist, "the rich carpets of Korkub and the silks and satins of Sus were in
request all over the world. The other provinces were equally famous for their splendid
manufactures. Susangrid contained a royal factory for gold embroidery of damask,
camel-hair fabrics and carpets. It also produced embroidered curtains made of spun silk
(kazz) for the sultan, and raw silk, camel and goat hair materials. Here were manufactured
splendid cloaks of spun silk, considered superior to the striped woollen cloaks of Shiraz.
The wealthy cities of Khorasan were active in the production of brocades carpets, rugs,
hangings, coverings for cushions, and woollen fabrics of all kinds. In short every city in
the empire had its own particular manufacture in metal, glass, wool, silk or linen. Syria
was famous for its manufacture of glass, and as early as the second century of the Hejra
parti-coloured and enamelled glass was produced" Jundeshapur was the seat of the
first observatory and the first college of natural sciences in the world. This college
gave an impetus to the development of industry and commerce. The chemical research in this
college led to the knowledge of sugar refining which was successfully applied to sugar
industry in Khuzistan and later on in Spain. Spain produced high class sugar. The
commodities exported during Abbasid Caliphate were agricultural produce, glass, hardware,
silk, textiles, perfumes of all kinds, rose water, saffron, syrup, oil, etc.
Spain
The Muslim kingdom of Spain had become a very prosperous State due to the extensive
industries developed there and the large-scale production carried on in the factories. Her
revenues obtained through commercial duties, according to a European author, exceeded the
entire revenues of all the Christian states of Europe taken tagether. "Spain under
the Caliphate" according to - Philip K. Hitti, "was one of the wealthiest and
most thickly populated lands of Europe".Cordova, the capital of the Moorish State had
13 thousand looms and a flourishing leather industry. The art of tanning and embossing
leather had been developed to a high degree of perfection and from here it spread-to
Morocco, England and France as the terms 'Cordovan', 'Cordwainer' and 'Morocco' indicate.
The celebrated Spanish historian Maqarri has written that high class woollen and silken
fabrics were manufactured not only in Cordova, but also in Malaya, Almeria and other
towns. Almeria also produced glassware and brasswork. Sericulture was much developed in
Spain. According to Ibn Khatib, Valencia was the home of pottery. Mining industry was
fully developed. Jaen and Algrava were famous for their mines of gold and silver, Cordova
for its iron and lead and Malaga for its rubies. According to Ibn Hauqal 'Toledo like
Damascus was known throughout the- world for it’s swords? "The art of inlaying
steel and other metals" says a celebrated western orientalist "with gold and
silver and decorating them with flower patterns, which was introduced from Damascus,
flourished in several European and Spanish centres and left a linguistic heritage in such
words as 'damascene' 'damaskeen', French 'darnasquiner' and Latin 'damschina'.
Muslim Spain was a leading State in textile industry. It produced high class cotton,
woollen and silken fabrics, which captured the European markets. Cordova had 13,000 and
Almeria 4,800 looms, "In the development of sumptuous textile arts" writes
Philip K. Hitti "which made Arabic speaking people the leading fabric makers and silk
mercersin the mediaeval world, the Arabs of Spain had a share but in carpet making Spain
offered no serious competition to Eastern, specially Persian market" The word muslin
has been derived from the word 'mussolina' a cotton fabric supplied to Italy from
al-Mausil, The fine silken fabric supplied by Baghdad to Italy was called Baldacoo or
Baldachin and it was used in the decoration of big churches of Europe. Similarly during
the 13th and 14th centuries, A.D. Granada, the capital of the last Muslim kindgom in Spain
supplied European dress shops with grenadines. Muslim workmen were mainly responsible in
setting up textile industry in France and Italy.
The Moors had converted the barren lands of Spain into a garden and agriculture was
developed to a high degree. Agricultural industry also flourished in Spain. Seville alone
had several thousand oil factories. Besides the textiles and agricultural industries,
paper, Porcelain earthenware, iron, steel and leather industries were carried on on an
extensive scale. The tapestries of Cordova, the woollen stuffs of Murcia, the silk of
Granada, Almeria and Seville, the steel and gold work of Toledo and the paper of Salibat
were sought all over the world. It was the Arabs who introduced the manufacture of silk
and cotton fabrics in Spain. They had specialised in the art of dyeing and had invented
black dyeing with indigo. The glazed tiles used in the palaces of Alhambra and the fine
vases still found there bear ample testimony to their perfection in the manufacture of
porcelain. The manufacture of gun-powder,sugar, and paper were introduced into Spain by
Muslims.
Persia
Among eastern Muslim countries, Persia was noted for its fabrics and carpets. Even upto
the present day, Persia has maintained an extensive carpet industry and Persian carpets
are considered to be the best in the world. The Persians have proved themselves masters of
decorative designs and colour applications since time immemorial. Their fine arts
including potteries, tiles and other decorative things reached a high degree of
excellence. Hunting and garden seen were woven on Persian carpets and rugs.
India
During the reign of the great Mughals and even afterwards Muslims were the pioneers in
cottage industries. Even today almost all the cottage industries in the Indo-Pak
subcontinent are in Muslim hands. The muslin of Dacca, the woollen rugs (shawl) of
Kashmir, the silken fabrics of Benares, the embroidery of Lucknow, the silver work of
Bedar, the potteries of Multan, the furniture of Bareiliy and the brassware of Moradabad
are manufactured and maintained by Muslim craftsman.
Fine Arts
"In the ceramics, another art as ancient' as Egypt and Susa" says Caston Migeon,
"the reproduction of human form and of animals and plants as well as geometric and
epigraphic figures attained a beauty of decorative style unsurpassed in any other Muslim
art"Beautiful Kashani tiles with flowers painted on them were a speciality of Persia
which were in great demand all over the world. "Among the Treasures of the
Louvre", writes Philip K. -Hitti, "the British Museum and the Arab Museum of
Cairo are exquisite pieces from Samarra and Al-Fustat including plates, cups, vases, ewers
and lamps for home and mosque use, painted with brilliant radiantlustres and acquiring
through the ages metallic glazes of changing rainbow hue"."
Decorative articles of luxury were produced on a large scale in Persia, Iraq, Spain and
Egypt and they adorned the palaces of the nobles and rulers of the world. A goblet of the
palace of Fatimids was sold for 360 dinars. Decorative writings were painted on glasses
which were hung in palaces and mosques.
The jewellery industry also flourished during the time of the Abbasids. Harun-ar-Rashid.
had purchased a ruby for 40,000 dinars and Yahya Ibn Khalid once offered 70,00,000 dirhams
for a jewel box. Persia and Spain were the great centres of fine arts industries. The
Hispano Moresque school excelled in metal work. One of such relies of the time of Hisham
II (976--1009 A.D.) is preserved on the high altar of the cathedral of Geroma in the form
of a wooden casket sheathed with silver gilt plating patterned in responsory with scroll
like foliation. According to a European writer in the application of coloured glazes to
earthenware, Muslims were from an early period past masters. In Europe Valencia was the
centre of ceramics and pottery industries. The potteries of Muslim Spain were later
imitated in the Nertherlands and Italy. Glazed and coloured tiles were also produced in
Spain and exported to European countries. Exquisite pottery was made in Toledo, Cordova,
Malaga and Valencia.
Textiles
Textile industry flourished in almost all the Muslim countries. The fine woollen, cotton
and silken fabrics including rugs, tapestries, satin, brocade (dibaj), sofa (sllffbt) and
muslin manufactured in Muslim countries were matchless and were exported to all parts of
the civilized world. These fabrics were in great demand in the Imperial palaces of the
East and the West. Persian carpets are still considered the best in the world. Writing in
the Legacy of Islam, J. H. Kramers says "But at the time of Islamic prosperity it had
made possible a development of industrial skill which brought the artistic value of the
products to an unequalled height....It is curious to note, too, that the State robes of
mediaeval German Emperors bore Arabic inscriptions"During the Abbasid Caliphate
carpets and textiles manufactured in Iraq and Persia maintained a high standard of
workmanship. A rug costing 13,00,00,000 dirhams, set with jewels was made for the mother
of al-Mutasim. A fabric called Tabi was introduced by the Arabs into Spain, which had a
good market in Italy and other European countries. A number of factories were established
in Tawwaj, Fasa and other cities of Faris where fine textiles, brocades, carpets and robes
were manufactured. Tester and Susa, towns in Khuzistan had factories for the embroidery of
'damask', a silken cloth originated in Damascus--which was used to make curtains. Among
the specialities of Khuzistan were woollen fabrics made of goat and camel hair and spun
silk cloaks. Shiraz, the famous city of Persia was known throughout the East for its
woollen cloaks and brocades. Khorasan and Armenia manufactured tapestries, sofas, curtains
and cushion covers, while Bokhara was noted for its prayer rugs. Egypt also produced high
class fabrics including Dabigi and Tinnisi which had a high reputation in the world
markets.
Other Industries
A large number of finished products and other articles were exported from Muslim
countries. Even the small province of Tranxonia exported among other things soap, carpets,
copper lamps, felt-cloaks, fur, amber, honey, scissors, swords, looms, tables, sofas,
lamps, vases, earthenware and kitchen utensils. The Syrian towns specially Sidon and Tyre
were noted for their fine glass and metal vessels which were sought all over the world and
were used as articles of utility and luxury. Ibn Batuta found Damascus as the centre of
Mosaic and Kashani industry, which were used for decorative purposes in the construction
of palatial buildings. The paper manufactured in Samarqand was considered to be the best
in the world. The first paper factory in Baghdad was established by the end of 8th century
A. D. Paper mills were founded in Egypt, Morocco and Spain before the end of 12th century
A. D. "From Muslim Spain" says a European writer, "in the 12th and 13th
centuries, the manufacture of paper finally worked its way into Christian Europe".
The Abbasid caliph al-Mustasim Billah was a great patron of industries. The keen interest
shown by him led to the rapid industrialization of Iraq and other countries. He opened big
soap and glass factories in Baghdad, Samarra and other towns.
Mining
Mines were worked in almost all the Muslim countries. The rich mines of Spain yielded
iron, copper, lead, gold, silver and rubies. Transaxonian mines yielded marble, mercury,
rubies, asbestos and azurite. Karman had big lead and silver mines. Pearls were obtained
from Bahrein, carnelian from Sana, turquoise from Neshapur, rubies from Badakhshan, iron
from Mt. Lebanon, kaolin and marble from Tabriz. Syria and Palestine had large sulphur
mines. Capable engineers and miners were employed in the iron mines of Khorasan (Persia)
and lead and silver mines of Karman (Persia). Georgian mines yielded bitumen and naphtha.
Thus the mineral resources of the Muslim countries were fully tapped and worked. The
countries noted for their mining industry were Persia, Spain, Caucasia, Transaxonia and
Palestine.
Ship Building
Arabs who were the greatest sailors and mariners of mediaeval times carried on an
extensive sea-borne trade between the East and the West. To meet this increasing sea-borne
commerce, ship-yards were built in all the important ports of Muslim countries, which were
called Darul Sanayeh, The ports of Abla and Sirafin the Persian Gulf, Tunis on the North
African Coast, Dania in Spain, Sus in Morocco, Palermo and Messina in Muslim Sicily, Bari
in Muslim Italy and Acre in Syria had ship building factories. During the Omayyad
caliphate such a factory was founded in Ashbilia (Syria) and during the reign of Abbasids
a big ship building yard existed in Sus. The celebrated conqueror Saladin had established
a large ship building yard in Beirut to enable him to meet the challenge of the crusaders.
Egypt had several ship building yards. The first of this kind was established in 54 A. H.
in Egypt. The Fatimid caliphs had ship building factories in Cairo, Alexandria and
Diametta.
The skill of Muslim craftsmen has now been acknowledged by liberal European writers.
Writing in his well known work Intellectual Development of Europe John William Draper
says, "They (Arabs) also promoted many important branches of industry improved the
manufacture of textile, fabrics, earthenware, iron, steel, the Toledo sword blades were
everywhere prized for their temper. The Arabs, on their expulsion from Spain, carried the
manufacture of a kind of leather, in which they were acknowledged to excel, to Morocco,
from which country the leather itself has now taken its name. They also introduced
inventions of a more ominous kind gunpowder and artillery. The canon they used appeared to
have been made of wrought iron. But perhaps they more than compensated for these evil
contrivances by the introduction of mariner's compass".l
R. Briffault says, "By and by the manufactures of the East were introduced and
imitated in the Christian Europe. Silk looms were established in Norman Sicily. Venice
copied with the aid of native craftsmen the glassware of Antioch, Lyons the 'Damasks',
Paris the 'Tapis Surrasins' and Rheims the linen of Syria. The rich dyes of the East were
brought to Bruges, where they were used to prepare English wool for the market. The wares
of Spain and Majorica led to the establishment of Italian factories for the manufacture of
majolica. Sugar factories were transferred from Sicily to Italy and from Spain to south
France".
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